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Arias Montero et al. Impacts of aerial spraying of banana plantaons.
5
Economic, environmental and health impacts of aerial spraying of
banana plantaons: A literature review
Impactos de la fumigación aérea de plantaciones bananeras:
una revisión de la literatura
Abstract
Aerial spraying in banana plantaons generates signicant economic, environmental, and public health impacts. This study pre-
sents a crical review of the scienc literature to analyze the eects of this pracce in rural contexts, with an emphasis on produ-
cing countries such as Ecuador. From an economic perspecve, aerial spraying has been shown to increase producvity and pest
control eciency, although it entails external costs, including adverse eects on the health of agricultural workers and nearby
communies. Environmentally, reported consequences include soil, air, and water polluon, biodiversity loss, and greenhouse
gas emissions. In terms of health, pescide exposure is associated with respiratory illnesses, genotoxic eects, spontaneous
aborons, and low birth weight. The lack of eecve regulaon, inadequate use of protecve equipment, and limited awareness
of associated risks exacerbate the issue. The review underscores the urgent need to implement sustainable agricultural pracces,
enforce stricter regulaons, and establish monitoring systems to migate risks to human health and the environment.
Keywords: aerial spraying; pescides; banana; public health; environmental impact; agribusiness; Ecuador.
Resumen
La fumigación aérea en plantaciones de banano genera impactos signicavos a nivel económico, ambiental y de salud pública.
Este estudio realiza una revisión críca de la literatura cienca para analizar los efectos de esta prácca en contextos rurales, con
énfasis en países productores como Ecuador. Desde una perspecva económica, la fumigación aérea ha demostrado aumentar
la producvidad y eciencia en el control de plagas, aunque con costos externos asociados, como la afectación a la salud de los
trabajadores agrícolas y comunidades cercanas. A nivel ambiental, se reportan consecuencias como la contaminación del suelo,
aire y agua, pérdida de biodiversidad y emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero. En términos de salud, la exposición a pescidas
está relacionada con enfermedades respiratorias, efectos genotóxicos, abortos espontáneos y bajo peso al nacer. La falta de re-
gulación ecaz, el uso inadecuado de equipos de protección y el desconocimiento de los riesgos agravan el problema. La revisión
enfaza la necesidad de implementar práccas agrícolas sostenibles, regulaciones y sistemas de monitoreo que reduzcan los
riesgos para la salud humana y el ambiente.
Palabras clave: fumigación aérea; plaguicidas; banano; salud pública; impacto ambiental; agroindustria; Ecuador.
Imelda Arias-Montero
1*
; Mauricio Alfredo Guillen Godoy
2
;
Juan Tarquino Calderón Cisneros
3
(Recibido: febrero 12, 2025; Aceptado: abril 30, 2025)
hps://doi.org/10.29076/issn.2602-8360vol9iss17.2025pp5-20p
1 Magíster en Gerencia en Salud para el Desarrollo Local, Especialista en Gerencia y Planicación Estratégica de Salud, Licenciada en Enfermería.
Docente tular, Universidad Estatal de Milagro, Ecuador. Email: iariasm@unemi.edu.ec. ORCID: hps://orcid.org/0000-0002-8735-4463. *Autor
de correspondencia
2 Doctor en Ciencias Contables y Empresariales, Magíster en Administración de Empresas, Ingeniero Comercial. Docente tular, Universidad Estatal
de Milagro, Ecuador. Email: mguilleng@unemi.edu.ec. ORCID: hps://orcid.org/0000-0001-8965-5959
3 Magíster en Educación Superior, Master Universitario en Análisis Avanzado de Datos Mulvariantes, Especialista en Proyectos de Desarrollo
Educavos y Sociales, Universidad de Guayaquil, Ingeniero en Estadísca Informáca. Universidad Tecnológica Ecotec, Ecuador. Email: mguilleng@
unemi.edu.ec. ORCID: hps://orcid.org/0000-0002-8167-8694
6
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Arias Montero et al. Impacts of aerial spraying of banana plantaons.
INTRODUCTION
Spraying is defined as the application of
smoke, gases, vapors, or dust in suspension,
especially to fields or plants, to combat
insect pests and other harmful organisms.
The impact of spraying is in several areas,
including damage to workers' occupational
health, including the risk of chronic diseases
and acute poisoning; risks to public health,
including poisoning of consumers; damage
to the environment, including soil and water
contamination, deforestation and reduction
of biodiversity; poisoning of wild animals,
livestock and pollinators; reduction of yields;
damage to production costs and export
potential [1].
From different fields, it can be indicated
that the relationship between the use of
pesticides in rural areas and the incidence
of respiratory diseases has been the subject
of attention and research for decades. As
industrial agriculture intensified and the use
of pesticides became widespread, concerns
arose about the potential negative effects
on human health [2]. The use of pesticides
in agriculture became more common in
the early 20th century to control pests and
increase crop yields. However, in the 1960s,
people began to pay attention to the effects
of pesticides on human health. DDT is one of
the most widely used pesticides [3].
One of the products used is
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, a man-
made chemical that does not occur
naturally in the environment. It is a white
crystalline solid, odorless and tasteless. DDE
(dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene) and DDD
(dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane) are DDT-
like chemicals formed by the breakdown
of DDT. DDT is a pesticide that was once
widely used to control agricultural insects
and insects that transmit diseases such as
malaria [4]. It was banned in 1972 because
it harmed wildlife, but it is still used in some
countries where diseases such as malaria are
a major health problem. DDE is not intended
for commercial use. DDD has been used for
pest control but is also banned. A form of
DDD has been used to treat adrenal cancer.
With further research, it was discovered that
pesticides can have irritant and toxic effects
on the human respiratory system [5].
Thus, chronic or acute exposure to pesticides
can cause respiratory irritation, pneumonia,
occupational asthma, and other respiratory
diseases. Over the years, regulations and
policies have been developed to regulate
pesticide use and reduce negative impacts
on human health and the environment.
More sustainable agricultural methods
are promoted, such as organic agriculture,
which limits the use of chemical pesticides
[7]. Despite advances in regulation and
knowledge of potential hazards, the exact
relationship between pesticide use and the
incidence of respiratory disease in rural
areas is an active research topic. Continued
research on long-term exposure to
multiple pesticides, cumulative effects, and
biological mechanisms to better understand
these relationships and take appropriate
precautions is needed [8]. Likewise, exposure
to pesticides by agricultural workers and
producers has also been a cause of respiratory
symptoms in Ecuador, where 62% of the rural
population is engaged in this activity.
Chemical pesticides also account for 1 to
4% of greenhouse gas emissions. These
emissions contribute to climate change. They
come from the production and transportation
of chemical pesticides. In both cases, they
use fossil fuels to a large extent.
The Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock
of Ecuador, and agricultural workers of
banana farms, exposed to pesticides for
their activities such as fertilization, spraying,
and harvesting, indicated: a high correlation
between exposure to agrochemicals and
respiratory diseases such as asthma and
wheezing; that workers were not aware of
the dangers of handling these chemicals and
the use of adequate respiratory personal
protective equipment to mitigate the risk;
and that filter masks were used by only one-
third of the population [9].
Evaluated greenhouse gas emissions (CO2,
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7
CH4 and N2O) following fertilizer application
in banana plantations in Brazil, highlighting
the significant environmental impact of these
practices. The results underline the need
for management strategies that minimize
emissions and promote sustainability [10];
while the anonymous 2020 study on the
banana supply chain in Thailand assessed
the environmental impact, suggesting
the implementation of more sustainable
practices to mitigate the negative effects.
This analysis is crucial to understand the
impact along the entire supply chain [11].
The purpose of the present study is exposure
to pesticides in rural areas contributes to
the increase of respiratory diseases in the
exposed population.
Evaluation of the use of pesticides in
agricultural activity in the department of
Putumayo, the Putumayo sector has for
many years grown and expanded illegal
crops for the production and processing
of psychoactive substances, especially
cannabis, cocaine, and heroin [12]. While
it has been established that this situation
causes public order, violence, social, and
economic imbalances, which motivates the
development of programs and strategies
to eradicate the problem, it is necessary
to study in detail the issues related to this
activity: the use of agrochemicals as organic
[13]. Treatment and purification The amount
of alkalis and crop maintenance chemicals is
a risk factor for the deterioration of health in
the affected communities [14].
This research aims to analyze some data
obtained from an investigation used in the
study "Postulated Effects of Glyphosate on
Human Health" conducted by the Clínica de
Toxicología Uribe Cualla sponsored by the U.S.
Embassy [15]. The objective of the analysis
is to determine the types of pesticides
used by farmers in the Putumayo province,
particularly in the municipalities of Orito,
San Miguel, and Valle del Guamuez, and their
relevance in the storage, use, waste, and
residue management of pesticides and the
use of personal protective equipment [16].
A retrospective descriptive observational
study was conducted in three municipalities
in the province of Putumayo, an important
cocaine-producing area. The study was
presented and approved by the Ethics
Committee of the Universidad del Rosario
and approved by the Research Committee of
the Clínica Uribe Cualla.
For this purpose, 12 villages were selected,
of which 9 were visited because of public
order problems due to relocation. To mobilize
people, community promoters and radio and
television media announced the organization
of a 10-day health brigade from June 10 to
20, 2001. A total of 1,244 people, regardless
of profession, age, or gender, spontaneously
participated in this event; two members of
the research team were assigned to complete
the survey according to the instructions, and
the survey questions were combined in all
cases [17]. Of the 501 subjects who received
the survey application, 11 left the interview
site, leaving 490 subjects to be included
in the data analysis. The participation of
the subjects in the study is voluntary, and
anonymous, after filling out and signing
an informed consent form, which takes
into account the norms established by the
Ministry of Health and Social Protection of
Colombia in 1993, published in Resolution
no. 008430/93 [18].
Agriculture, one of the main economic
activities in Putumayo province, is associated
with the use of pesticides; unfortunately, it
is possible to point out that the conditions
of preparation, use, storage, and solid waste
disposal of these products are inadequate:
Disposal of these substances The population
corresponds to all age groups, including
children; they use toxicological class I products
with a frequency of up to once a week, using
dosing methods, including stationary pumps,
without personal protection measures
and without an adequate plan for the final
disposal of the empty containers [19].
Legal regulation regarding the use, treatment,
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and disposal of pesticides and their derived
solid wastes is complex and fragmented in
various norms; although Decree 1843 of 1991
established the law on this matter, another
more specific regulation. The mandates
of various government departments are
not completely defined, which generates
duplication and confusion as to the functions
they perform [8].
The situation is aggravated by the lack of real
institutional coordination between national
and regional units. The cases mentioned
in this study are just one example of the
issues related to the use, management, and
disposal of pesticides and hence the efforts
of academic units, research institutes, social
security, agriculture and rural development,
environment, housing, and territorial
development and their related or relevant
agencies: to assess the effects of the use and
disposal of these chemicals on human health
and the environment [20].
State, autonomous, and environmental
authorities must fully comply with their
functions related to the surveillance, control,
and monitoring of the use, treatment,
disposal, and destruction of pesticides and all
the elements to be treated in the field. Despite
the official publication of laws, decrees,
and resolutions on the use and handling of
pesticides and training in trade unions and
agrochemical industry magazines [21], the
availability and proper interpretation of such
information by common people and farmers
is still low, and the level of education is quite
irregular. Use unregistered products and
unknowing the rules for their use, handling,
and final disposal, as well as measures to
protect workers [23].
In this regard, various agencies visit certain
areas to disseminate the latest situation
and published pesticide application
procedures; it is recommended to develop
training programs aimed at informing local
communities and institutions about the
safe handling of pesticides and their toxic
effects from a technical and scientific point
of view [24]. Continuing education programs
are also needed for health professionals in
the industry to properly diagnose and treat
pesticide poisonings. An epidemiological
surveillance system coordinated by the
Administrative Department of Health needs
to be developed and implemented to
comply with the mandatory reporting and
investigation requirements for all pesticide
poisoning cases established by Law No.
1991 of the Ministry of Health and Social
Protection. Law of 1843 [25].
The remainder of this paper is organized as
follows: Section 2 provides an overview of
the context of the economic impact of aerial
spraying in banana plantations, Section 3
provides information on the environmental
and health impact of aerial spraying, and
Section 4 describes the methodology used.
Section 5 presents the results obtained
and finally, the last section presents the
conclusions.
ECONOMIC IMPACT OF AERIAL SPRAYING IN
BANANA PLANTATIONS
Aerial spraying in banana plantations has
been found to have positive effects on
crop productivity and yield. The use of
agrochemicals, including aerial spraying, can
effectively control pests and diseases that can
damage banana crops [26]. By eliminating
or reducing the impact of these threats,
aerial spraying helps ensure healthy and
abundant yields. This, in turn, has a positive
economic impact on banana plantations, as
higher yields translate into higher profits for
farmers.
The cost-effectiveness and profitability of
aerial spraying in banana plantations are also
important considerations. A study conducted
by the International Fertilizer Association
(IFA) in 2004 showed that the use of aerial
spraying in banana plantations resulted in
significant cost savings compared to other
pest control methods [27]. The efficiency
and effectiveness of aerial spraying make it
an economically viable option for banana
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9
growers, contributing to the overall economic
sustainability and profitability of the industry.
In addition, the use of aerial spraying allows
for larger-scale operations, further increasing
productivity and profitability.
However, it is essential to consider the
potential negative consequences of aerial
spraying on the environment and human
health. The intensive use of agrochemicals,
including aerial spraying, can lead to soil,
water, and air pollution, posing a risk to
ecosystems and biodiversity [29]. In addition,
exposure to these chemicals can have adverse
effects on human health, both for workers
involved in spraying activities and for nearby
communities [30] It is crucial to carefully
manage and regulate the use of aerial
spraying to minimize these negative impacts
and ensure the long-term sustainability of
banana plantations.
It can be noted that the study by Prescott-
allen [4] provides a basis for spraying
practices for foliar disease control in banana
plantations, highlighting the importance
of leaf retention in the efficacy of disease
control. Although this study predates the
date range considered, it is still relevant to
understanding the evolution of spraying
practices [31].
Analysis focuses on social struggles
in the Philippines over aerial spraying
risk regulation, highlighting how social
movements and counter-expertise have
influenced government policies. This
study illustrates the economic and social
complexities surrounding aerial spraying in
banana plantations [32].
One of the economic impacts on banana
production is the accompanying growth of
labor markets that are flexible and feminized,
but the marginalization of sectors of the
working class, and women in particular, is
not an inexorable ingredient of globalization.
However, the marginalization of sectors of
the working class, and women in particular, is
not an inexorable ingredient of globalization.
How, then, are social relations within the
labor market constructed? Markets and
their institutional arrangements, such as
labor standards, are not passive or benign
processes that simply reflect pre-existing
social relations. Instead, I argue that markets
are social constructions and that actors use
institutions strategically to promote certain
interests and preferences [33].
The economic impact of banana production,
which involves the use of pesticides
through aerial spraying, not only mentions
productivity concerning income in terms of
foreign exchange earnings for the country
but it should be considered that, in the
determinants, the insertion of women in this
labor field increases the risk within the triple
burden that they fulfill in society, such as the
reproductive function, which is affected, as
well as being a wife and a worker [34].
The implications of the economic impact of
spraying, not only banana crops, but also
other crops such as corn, as stated in the study
[1], whose result states that the aggregate
cost of externalities generated by pesticides
was estimated at about MXN $24 million per
year, and the most notable economic impacts
were reflected in consumers, workers, and
aquatic life [4]
The economic impact of pests has become a
challenge for the local and global economy
because they can cause damage to crops,
properties, and businesses; one of the
most obvious ways in which pests affect the
economy is through damage to crops and
agriculture, one of the most obvious ways in
which pests affect the economy is through
damage to crops and agriculture, as insects,
fungi and diseases can decimate crops, thus
decreasing food production and increasing
food prices [33]. The impact on business
depends on the repair of the damage they
cause, which represents a significant expense
for households and businesses, which often
must invest in pest control measures and
repair of damaged structures, and can have
an impact on international trade by affecting
the quality and quantity of agricultural
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Arias Montero et al. Impacts of aerial spraying of banana plantaons.
products that are exported and imported.
This makes pest prevention and control a
necessary investment in agriculture to obtain
more and better products [7].
The economic impact is related to several
aspects, including the human talent that
manages it, when their health is affected,
having to access fumigations for pest control,
and the decrease in food production, a
situation that shows concern on the part of
farmers.
ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH IMPACT OF
AERIAL SPRAYING IN RURAL AREAS
The rapid increase in chemical exposure
during industrialization has greatly
increased chemical risks, with devastating
consequences for local communities. The
number of victims of pesticide poisoning
among Ecuadorian farmers is increasing year
after year [35].
Ecuador's rural sector has suffered serious
consequences without the government
developing adequate health policies for
chemical risk assessment, patient care,
and prevention. April 24 marked another
anniversary of World Toxicology Day. This
brief essay aims to shed light on issues that
are rarely discussed in Ecuadorian health.
The countries we know as "developed
countries" are plagued by chemicals that
are harmful to human health [36]. Especially
since industrialization has taken the reins of
economic production and the bourgeoisie
has taken over society, exposure to chemicals
harmful to health has increased exponentially,
giving rise to, as they colloquially call it,
'globalization'. It is industrial workers who are
most at risk from chemicals, and this not only
affects economically dependent countries
like ours but, in Spain as of 2010, chemicals
4,000 deaths, 33,000 illnesses, 4,444 deaths,
and 18,000 deaths each year from exposure
to the risks of Industrial Accident [37].
Aerial spraying in banana plantations can
harm banana quality due to exposure to
pesticides and pesticides used in aerial
the process. Pesticide and its residues can
remain on the fruit, which can affect banana
quality. In addition, exposure to pesticides
used in aerial spraying may affect the health
of workers and communities near banana
plantations, which may also affect banana
quality [38]
In the study of Alvarado et al. 2024, about
the incidence of aerial spraying on banana
crops in the Bella Union farm of the
Colombian Union Site of Machala canton,
whose results establish that the presence
of serious environmental impacts in the
study area, however, through the analysis of
samples only the variation of soil electrical
conductivity is established, therefore, it is
determined that the socio-environmental
impacts of aerial spraying are minor, being
necessary a more in-depth study [39].
Adopted a scalar narrative approach to map
explanatory narratives about pesticides
and health in El Oro province, Ecuador. The
study revealed that structural explanations,
such as uncontrolled aerial spraying, were
common among workers, while individualized
narratives attributed health problems
to personal behaviors, thus stabilizing
inequitable social structures [39].
Aerial spraying in banana plantations can
affect both banana production and quality.
Some of the effects of aerial spraying on
banana production and quality are presented
below:
Effects on production: Aerial spraying can
reduce crop losses due to pests and diseases,
which can increase banana production.
However, excessive use of pesticides in
aerial spraying can affect soil quality and
biodiversity, which can reduce banana
production in the long term [40].
Effects on quality: Aerial spraying can improve
banana quality by reducing crop losses due
to pests and diseases. However, excessive
use of pesticides in aerial spraying can affect
banana quality by leaving pesticide residues
on the fruit [41].
In addition, exposure to pesticides used
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in aerial spraying can affect the health of
workers and communities near banana
plantations, which can affect banana quality
[42]. Thus, in relation to health and safety,
investigated the perception of pesticide risk
among local stakeholders in Talamanca, Costa
Rica, highlighting the exposure and risks
associated with aerial spraying. This study
highlights the importance of risk perception
in pesticide management and its impact on
community health [40]. There is also the
study by [43] which explored the effects of
aerial spraying on the health of newborns in
Ecuador. They found a significant reduction in
birth weight and an increase in the probability
of low birth weight and preterm delivery,
highlighting the health risks associated with
pesticide exposure during pregnancy [44].
The data presented in Figure 1 show the
documents that were investigated by country
on fumigation in banana plantations in each
territory. This visualization allows us to better
understand the distribution of fumigation
research in recent years. The country with the
highest number of documents, with a total
of 12 documents. This indicates that China is
the leader in the production of documents on
the subject analyzed in this graph. Australia
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The CEE guidelines [45] describe the
convention of the systematic review, which
breaks down the main research question
into definable components known as PICO
or PECO. The PICO elements also determine
the keywords to formulate the search terms
as required by the methodology. The review
team agreed on the PICO elements defined
in Table 1. Once developed, the team tested
on 08/07/23, different search terms, using
the three major search engines (PubMed,
Scopus, and SAGEPUB,). The review team
avoided excessive use of search operators
such as wildcards, Booleans, braces, etc., to
avoid incompatibilities between the different
engines [46].
is in second place, with approximately 8
documents, showing a high participation
compared to the other countries.
The United States and India, both countries
have a similar production, with around
6 papers each, which places them in an
intermediate position, highlighting their
contribution to academic or scientific
production in this context.
Table 1. Search strategies used in the different databases
PUBMED
AERIAL AND FUMIGATION AND ECUADOR
ECONOMIC IMPACT AND BANANA PLANTATIONS
((ECONOMIC IMPACT) AND (BANANA PLANTATIONS)) AND
(SUSTAINABLE ECONOMY)
((SALIVARY) AND (UNEXPECTED)) AND (PET)
SCOPUS AERIAL AND FUMIGATION AND ECUADOR
SUSTAINABLE ECONOMY AND INHABITANTS' HEALTH
SAGEPUB ECONOMIC IMPACT+ AERIAL FUMIGATION+ BANANA PLANTATIONS
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Arias Montero et al. Impacts of aerial spraying of banana plantaons.
Figura 1. Graphical representation of the distribution of articles by country.
Figure 2. Article by area of knowledge
Source: Own elaboration based on data from the Scopus database with the keywords 2023.
Netherlands and Thailand are also in
an intermediate position, with about 5
documents, highlighting their participation
in this area. Canada, Ecuador, Egypt, and
Japan, these countries have significantly
lower production, with 1 or 2 papers each.
This indicates a lower participation in the
topic or area of research compared to the
leaders.
China leads by far in terms of published
papers, followed by Australia and then the
United States and India. Countries with
less production, such as Canada, Ecuador,
Of the total area, 5.2 million hectares are
under agricultural use (permanent, transitory,
cultivated, and natural pastures) and 7.0
Egypt, and Japan, have a much more limited
representation compared to the others. This
graph provides a clear view of the geographic
distribution of document production in the
subject area analyzed, showing notable
leadership by China.
Figure 2 illustrates the proportion of areas
of knowledge that researched the impact
of aerial spraying. The results show that
42.9% are from the area of Immunology and
Agricultural and Biological Sciences, while
10.2% are from Microbiology and 10.2% from
the area of Environmental Sciences.
million hectares are not under agricultural
use (forests, woodlands, moorlands, rest,
and other non-agricultural uses). This graph
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Arias Montero et al. Impacts of aerial spraying of banana plantaons.
13
shows the distribution of the area planted
with different crops in the country, with
cocoa occupying the first place. The key data
that stands out is that the area planted with
cocoa represents 41.3% of the national total.
The cocoa crop occupies the largest planted
area with 591,557 hectares, making it the
most representative crop in terms of area
within the country. This figure highlights
the importance of cocoa in the agricultural
sector, being a strategic crop for the country's
economy and agriculture.
African palm is the second largest crop in
terms of planted area, with 196,082 hectares.
Although it occupies a significant place, its
area is considerably smaller compared to that
In 2022, the banana harvested area was
167,544 hectares, registering a growth of
2.1 % compared to 2021. Export bananas
are mainly located in the Ecuadorian Coast
Region, three provinces account for 91.2% of
the national banana harvested area. These
are Los Ríos, Guayas, and El Oro, while in the
Andes region, there is an 8.8% share.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Aerial spraying in banana plantations can
affect banana quality due to exposure to
pesticides used in the process. It is important
to carefully evaluate these effects before
of cocoa. Bananas follow African palm with
172,653 hectares. It is another important
crop, especially for export, but with less
planted area than cocoa and African palm.
Plantain has 133,145 hectares, ranking below
bananas, but it is still a relevant crop in the
agricultural panorama. Sugarcane occupies
116,515 hectares, showing that it is also
an important crop, although in a smaller
proportion than the others mentioned.
Finally, other perennials, which includes
several crops not detailed in the graph,
occupies 223,002 hectares, indicating a
diversity of crops in the country, but each
with less area than cocoa.
deciding to use aerial spraying in the banana
industry. In addition, integrated pest and
disease management practices should be
adopted to reduce reliance on pesticides
and pesticides and to protect the health of
workers and the environment [48].
It is known that toxic agriculture causes
cancer and other diseases in adults. A large
scientific literature is currently available
on the specific effects of pesticides on
children's health. However, pediatricians
and their patients will benefit greatly
from a document that summarizes the
most recent and scientifically documented
Figure 3. Planted area of permanent crops (ha)
Source: Data from the ESPAC Continuous Agricultural Surface and Production Survey 2023
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Arias Montero et al. Impacts of aerial spraying of banana plantaons.
knowledge [49]. The document may also
stimulate them to acquire relevant scientific
knowledge based on their daily experience
or clinical observations in their field [50].
Cytogenetic monitoring of agricultural
workers in the province of Cordoba exposed
to the pesticides glyphosate, cypermethrin
and atrazine showed a higher frequency of
chromosomal abnormalities compared to
controls, demonstrating the risks presented.
The effects of these pesticides on their
population health [51].
Further research can establish other
population effects of pesticide exposure, as
cited by [52]explored the effects of pesticides
on rates of miscarriage and infant deaths
among women farmers in South Africa. The
results indicated that pesticide exposure
during the first three months of pregnancy
was significantly associated with an increase
in miscarriages. This study underscores the
need for interventions to improve pesticide
safety and reduce reproductive health risks
[52]. A situation that uncovers a situation
that was not visualized, as it only focused
on intoxications and cancer, which has to be
considered to not only address human health
but also, according to [53] the evaluation
of the sustainability of 48 arable farming
systems in France, including conventional,
integrated and organic systems. It was found
that integrated systems, which combine a
variety of management techniques, showed
a reduction in the use of pesticides and
nitrogen fertilizers, consuming less energy
and often being more energy efficient. The
results suggest that promoting crop rotation
diversity and combining diverse management
techniques can contribute significantly to the
economic and environmental sustainability
of agricultural systems. This situation should
not only be observed but also applied to
reduce risks to the population and the
environment [54].
Around the world, more than 5 billion
pounds of pesticides are used annually; they
represent a diverse group of chemical and
physical agents that have varying toxicity
to plants and animals. Exposure to these
chemicals is common in both agricultural and
residential settings; 15.0% of insecticides
and 8.0% of herbicides used in the United
States are for residential use 1,2. The primary
function of pesticides is to prevent or reduce
pest losses, given their high degree of toxicity
as they are designed to kill certain organisms;
they create risks of harm to human health,
wildlife, and sensitive ecosystems. The main
risk for agricultural workers is exposure to
pesticides during preparation, chemical
application, handling, and tasks in recently
sprayed fields from residues in food and
drinking water for the general population
[55].
The risk to agricultural workers or the
surrounding communities increases due
to multiple exposures and re-exposure
of the individual before full recovery [56]
investigated the genotoxic effects on
workers in conventional and organic banana
plantations in Ecuador. Using the micronucleus
assay in buccal cells, they found a significant
increase in the frequency of micronuclei
and other nuclear abnormalities in workers
from conventional plantations compared to
those from organic plantations. These results
indicate that organic farming could be a viable
alternative to reduce cancer risks associated
with intensive pesticide use [57]. This occurs
in these workers because, unlike laborers,
applicators and day laborers can be exposed,
successively or simultaneously, to pesticides
of different classes and this can cause the
following affectations in the human body.
It has been estimated that 25 million
agricultural workers worldwide experience
unintentional pesticide poisonings each
year. In Chile, between 2006 and 2015 the
Toxicological Information Center of the
Catholic University (CITUC for its Spanish
acronym) received a total of 22,951 cases
of pesticide poisoning. The main routes that
enter the human body are: dermal, oral, ocular,
and respiratory (inhalation) and their danger
Volumen 9, Nº 17, diciembre 2025 - mayo 2026, pp. 05-20
Arias Montero et al. Impacts of aerial spraying of banana plantaons.
15
increases depending on the concentration
and toxicity of the pesticide [58]. The use
and exposure of pesticides may be related
to various diseases such as cancer, leukemia,
Parkinson's, asthma, neuropsychological
and cognitive disorders, etc. In Chile, the
presence of pesticides (organophosphate:
chlorpyrifos and fungicides: diphenylamine
(banned in EU), thiabendazole pyrimethanil)
in the population due to the consumption
of vegetables was evidenced [59]. Pesticide
use in rural areas can have respiratory health
implications Pesticides that come into use are
chemicals designed to kill or control pests,
such as insects, weeds, and fungi. Although
pesticides can be effective in protecting
crops and increasing agricultural production,
they also pose risks to human health and
the environment, whether through aerial
or ground spraying, they can be dispersed
into the air and inhaled by people living or
working nearby.
Technological innovations, the identification
of disease risks in bananas, as well as the
reduction of risk in plantations, reducing
environmental impact, as well as the
optimization of plantation management,
such as monitoring for yellow Sigatoka in
banana plantations, should be considered.
This study shows how advanced technology
can improve the early detection and
management of diseases, reducing the need
for intensive aerial spraying [59] developed a
method to detect banana plantations using
neural networks and aerial photography.
Their study achieved an accuracy of over
95%, showing how technology can optimize
plantation management and reduce
environmental impact [59]. In this sense, it is
also the improvement of water management,
optimizing water use with the improvement
of productivity, as stated in the study of
[60] identified opportunities to improve
the management of water stress in banana
production, highlighting the importance of
efficient irrigation practices. This study is
relevant for developing strategies to optimize
water use and improve productivity without
compromising the environment [61].
The negative impact on banana quality due to
exposure to pesticides used in aerial spraying
has been recognized, however, the burden of
disease has not been given the importance
it deserves, in fact, studies, monitoring,
and surveillance of workers, with important
results, since chromosomal abnormalities
thus evidencing the risks to which people
are exposed [62], This situation is evidenced
when the cytogenetic monitoring of
agricultural workers exposed to glyphosate,
cypermethrin and atrazine pesticides
showed a higher frequency of chromosomal
abnormalities compared to controls, which
demonstrates the risks involved [63]. In
addition, there are studies conducted on
women farmers exposed to pesticides,
whose effect is a function in the rates of
spontaneous abortions and infant deaths, it
is also evidenced in the investigation of the
genotoxic effects in workers of conventional
and ecological banana plantations in Ecuador,
found a significant increase in the frequency
of micronuclei and other nuclear anomalies
in workers of conventional plantations [64].
Integrated cropping systems combining a
variety of management techniques showed
a reduction in the use of pesticides and
nitrogen fertilizers, consuming less energy
and often being more energy efficient,
indicating that organic farming could be a
viable alternative to reduce the cancer risks
associated with intensive pesticide use [65].
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, aerial spraying in banana
plantations can have several economic
effects, both positive and negative. It is
important to carefully evaluate these effects
before deciding to use aerial spraying in the
banana industry. In addition, integrated pest
and disease management practices should
be adopted to reduce reliance on pesticides
and to protect the health of workers and the
environment.
16
Volumen 9, Nº 17, diciembre 2025 - mayo 2026, pp. 05-20
Arias Montero et al. Impacts of aerial spraying of banana plantaons.
Agriculture-associated respiratory diseases
encompass a wide range of clinical
manifestations, from mild illness to severe
respiratory failure, including occupational
asthma. Various organic aggregates carry
bacteria, mold, toxins, and pesticides, which
can be transported into the airways and
cause more serious lung problems.
Workers may be exposed to high
concentrations of allergenic dust when
working in confined agricultural spaces such
as nurseries and silos. Gases used as pesticides
or released in response to pesticide use
(hydrogen sulfide, phosgene, chlorine, etc.)
directly affect the lining of the airways and
present a risk of triggering hyperbronchitis,
which can cause inflammation and asthmatic
reactions in people. Asthma can be triggered
by exposure to specific antigens in agricultural
environments, such as pollen, dust mites,
and grain dust.
Mucositis is a common reaction to airborne
dust in patients with a history of allergic
rhinitis or atopy. Plant particles in grain dust
appear to mechanically irritate the eyes, but
exposure to endotoxins and mycotoxins can
also irritate the eyes, nasal passages, and
throat.
Figure 3 highlights the dominance of cocoa,
which represents more than 40% of the
country's total agricultural area, being the
main crop in terms of extension. It is followed
by other relevant crops such as African palm,
banana, plantain, and sugarcane, but none
of them come close to the predominance
of cocoa. This underlines the importance of
cocoa in national agriculture, both in terms
of planted area and economic impact.
The entire population is indirectly exposed
to pesticides through water and air pollution
caused by the use of these products in
agriculture and public health. The amount and
type of pesticides used are not adequately
controlled because the food was grown to
contaminate it or because deadlines were not
met before marketing (withdrawal period).
When food is used that has been disinfected
during storage and transport, or when it is
stored or transported in premises or vehicles
that have been disinfected (before or at the
same time) or have been used for storage or
transport of pesticidal food. Finally, humans
are exposed to food contamination caused
indirectly by soil and water contamination.
Author Contributions: For research articles
with several authors, a short paragraph
specifying their individual contributions
must be provided. The following statements
should be used “Conceptualization, Mauricio
Alfredo Guillen Godoy and , Juan Tarquino
Calderón Cisneros; methodology, Mariana
Esperanza Guadalupe Vargas and Imelda
Arias-Montero; software, , Juan Tarquino
Calderón Cisneros; validation, Mariana
Esperanza Guadalupe Vargas., Imelda
Arias-Montero and Juan Tarquino Calderón
Cisneros.; formal analysis, Juan Tarquino
Calderón Cisneros; investigation, Imelda
Arias-Montero; resources, Mariana Esperanza
Guadalupe Vargas.; data curation, Mauricio
Alfredo Guillen Godoy.; writing—original
draft preparation, Mauricio Alfredo Guillen
Godoy and Juan Tarquino Calderón Cisneros.;
writing—review and editing, Mariana
Esperanza Guadalupe Vargas and Imelda
Arias-Montero.; visualization, Imelda Arias-
Montero.; supervision, Mauricio Alfredo
Guillen Godoy; project administration,
Mauricio Alfredo Guillen Godoy.; funding
acquisition, Mauricio Alfredo Guillen Godoy.
All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.” Please
turn to the CRediT taxonomy for the term
explanation. Authorship must be limited to
those who have contributed substantially to
the work reported.
Funding: The study was conducted within
the framework of the UNEMI 2020 call for
research projects.
Data Availability Statement: Different
databases (SCOPUS, SAGEPUB, PUBMED)
were used in this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no
conflicts of interest.
Volumen 9, Nº 17, diciembre 2025 - mayo 2026, pp. 05-20
Arias Montero et al. Impacts of aerial spraying of banana plantaons.
17
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